範例哲學的人類科學知識界限（3）

在從上個世紀開始到現在的100多年以來，人類在科學知識的探索方面遇到了一個空
前的挑戰。這個挑戰，或者“撞牆”，使得科學技術幾乎在原地踏步 - 科學家通常
稱作：瓶頸。

這個挑戰來自四個方面，它們分別是：1)量子力學和關於相對論的統一場論；2)量
子力學關於“測不準原理”的廣泛共識的接受；3)人的意識與大腦思維的關係；4)和
當代天體物理學中宇宙中暗物質和暗能量的分布和探測。人類已經知道了宇宙中的
四種力的存在，如引力，電磁力，強相互作用力和弱相互作用力。以及前不久歐洲
原子能中心對撞機對波色子的發現 - 對早先預測的粒子存在，用於解釋微觀粒子如
何產生物質和弱相互作用力的一大空白填補。

嚴格地說，對人類理解自然界的探索中主要問題，後三者更為重要一些。因為量子
力學與廣義相對論的統一，只是數學表達公式的精簡與否的問題。真理是客觀的，
並不依賴人類理解方法的變化而變化。如果各自獨立的數學表達式已經代表了真理
的發現，精簡表達式的統一場論，只能帶來更完美的更華麗的外表，而且這一步的
發現只是時間問題。沒有人類知識的根本“質變”，“量的增加”只能是錦上添花。


其他三種問題的性質，則複雜的多，而且涉及更深入的問題。也就是，當人類反覆
求解這三個問題，反覆證實這三個問題的真實性，人類是否應該繼續延着過去的經
驗路線，既，仍然認為是一定可以突破此瓶頸，而不需要跳出思維的局限，採取
“out of the box thinking”的思維方式。

比如關於“測不準原理”，通俗地說，當“盾＂比“矛”還小時，很明顯，矛和盾
的位置就變換了。原先的矛，永遠也不可能刺進原先的盾了。所以科學探測儀器必
然要干擾微粒子的動量和位置了。同理也可以解釋為什麼大腦神經外科醫學家，不
能探測到意識生成的規律，不可能從大束神經元的啟動與點燃中，理解他們與人類
的意識的關係。既人的大腦是如何產生自我中心的意識，和進行思維如何可能的問
題。如果科學遇到障礙，因為自然科學的經驗性質，哲學必須提供新的自己的解釋。
既哲學應該從邏輯上指出科學探索道路的正確性與否，從而領導科學前進。

這就是範例哲學試圖解決問題的方法 - 提供哲學的解釋，啟發科學家的研究深入。
範例哲學將量子物理學的粒子對象，和思維中的神經元運動，看成自然界存在的現
象。他們不是一般的現象，而是自然現象的最後堡壘，既，他們處在“自身形式”
的最後消失階段。

範例哲學的本體論，將自然現象散布與存在的哲學概念中。具體地說，一切現象的
邏輯前提是“絕對”的背景。絕對是最根本的範疇，不容質疑。絕對就是中國傳統
概念的“無”。從“無中生有”開始，第一個起點是“在”。用當代天體物理學的
看法，可以視在為“奇點”，這時一切都等於零。在奇點儲蓄足夠的暗能量和暗物
質之後，在的所維尺度中的一個 - 存在的範疇 - 就產生了。由於存在範疇內容的
空泛，存在與是不存在任何具體的內容，就是非存在。暗中的能量潛在的物質，與
存在的空虛性，導致了宇宙的大爆炸的開始。首先在爆炸中產生的是時間。由時間
產生空間和其他的限制性。這就是第二維，“定在”的開始。定在，是-存在的規定
性（多，數）由大到小，由固定到飄忽。最後產生思在- 作為思維的規定性（重構
現實，抽象掉時空，變成記憶（符號？）儲存）具體到抽象，形象，符號，數字，
邏輯，理性，悟性等等。


所以說，範例哲學認為，面對這四大問題，人類也許遇到的不再是過去類型的瓶頸困
難，而是需要轉換思維方式。下面這就是簡要的範例哲學的本體論對這些科學問題的嘗試

解釋和圖解。

能否用範例哲學的本體論的知識，嘗試證明人類所知的物質和能量比例符合愛因斯坦的質能關係式：E=MC^2呢？我們知道人類所知到的物質和能量，僅僅占宇宙總能量和物質的百分之四左右，計算約是這樣得來的，參見下面一書：

"The 4 Percent Universe: Dark Matter, Dark Energy, and the Race to Discover the Rest of Reality

by Richard Panek

The epic, behind-the-scenes story of an astounding gap in our scientific knowledge of the cosmos. 

In the past few years, a handful of scientists have been in a race to explain a disturbing aspect of our universe: only 4 percent of it consists of the matter that makes up you, me, our books, and every planet, star, and galaxy. The rest—96 percent of the universe—is complete.."

The whole universe after the Big Bang and its 3 dimensions mentioned above

我們是否可以這樣推測：如果以“絕對”的範例本體論背景下的“世界”，作為百分之百，而我們所知道的，現在居住的地球，和所屬的所有星系算“一次大爆炸”後的結果，算作“1”。那麼如果我要計算我們所知道的所有質量和物質的在定在，存在和思在範圍內的比例，也就是相當於整個範例本體論所描述的“絕對世界”的幾分之幾，我們就按照簡單平均一下三個維度。這三個維度所占的當在大於零時，相當於整個範例本體空間“1”的八分之一，也就是0.125.然後再簡單平均一下三個維度所產生的“物質”，有理由相信，在宇宙中，物質（能量）的分布是大致均勻的。真正定在的物質和能量，才是我們可以計算的：0.125/3 = 0.041左右，也就是4.1%, 整個三維所占體積的三分之一為物質和能量的比例，大約符合天體物理學家算出得出大約4%的數據。是不是範例哲學有幾分預測性，您自己判斷。 

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Ref：

Dark Energy, Dark Matter

In the early 1990's, one thing was fairly certain about the expansion of the Universe. It might have enough energy density to stop its expansion and recollapse, it might have so little energy density that it would never stop expanding, but gravity was certain to slow the expansion as time went on. Granted, the slowing had not been observed, but, theoretically, the Universe had to slow. The Universe is full of matter and the attractive force of gravity pulls all matter together. Then came 1998 and the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) observations of very distant supernovae that showed that, a long time ago, the Universe was actually expanding more slowly than it is today. So the expansion of the Universe has not been slowing due to gravity, as everyone thought, it has been accelerating. No one expected this, no one knew how to explain it. But something was causing it.

Eventually theorists came up with three sorts of explanations. Maybe it was a result of a long-discarded version of Einstein's theory of gravity, one that contained what was called a "cosmological constant." Maybe there was some strange kind of energy-fluid that filled space. Maybe there is something wrong with Einstein's theory of gravity and a new theory could include some kind of field that creates this cosmic acceleration. Theorists still don't know what the correct explanation is, but they have given the solution a name. It is called dark energy.

What Is Dark Energy?

Universe Dark Energy-1 Expanding Universe

This diagram reveals changes in the rate of expansion since the universe's birth 15 billion years ago. The more shallow the curve, the faster the rate of expansion. The curve changes noticeably about 7.5 billion years ago, when objects in the universe began flying apart as a faster rate. Astronomers theorize that the faster expansion rate is due to a mysterious, dark force that is pulling galaxies apart.

NASA/STSci/Ann Feild

More is unknown than is known. We know how much dark energy there is because we know how it affects the Universe's expansion. Other than that, it is a complete mystery. But it is an important mystery. It turns out that roughly 70% of the Universe is dark energy. Dark matter makes up about 25%. The rest - everything on Earth, everything ever observed with all of our instruments, all normal matter - adds up to less than 5% of the Universe. Come to think of it, maybe it shouldn't be called "normal" matter at all, since it is such a small fraction of the Universe.

One explanation for dark energy is that it is a property of space. Albert Einstein was the first person to realize that empty space is not nothing. Space has amazing properties, many of which are just beginning to be understood. The first property that Einstein discovered is that it is possible for more space to come into existence. Then one version of Einstein's gravity theory, the version that contains acosmological constant, makes a second prediction: "empty space" can possess its own energy. Because this energy is a property of space itself, it would not be diluted as space expands. As more space comes into existence, more of this energy-of-space would appear. As a result, this form of energy would cause the Universe to expand faster and faster. Unfortunately, no one understands why the cosmological constant should even be there, much less why it would have exactly the right value to cause the observed acceleration of the Universe. 

Dark Matter Core Defies Explanation

This image shows the distribution of dark matter, galaxies, and hot gas in the core of the merging galaxy cluster Abell 520. The result could present a challenge to basic theories of dark matter.

Another explanation for how space acquires energy comes from the quantum theory of matter. In this theory, "empty space" is actually full of temporary ("virtual") particles that continually form and then disappear. But when physicists tried to calculate how much energy this would give empty space, the answer came out wrong - wrong by a lot. The number came out 10¹²⁰ times too big. That's a 1 with 120 zeros after it. It's hard to get an answer that bad. So the mystery continues.

Another explanation for dark energy is that it is a new kind of dynamical energy fluid or field, something that fills all of space but something whose effect on the expansion of the Universe is the opposite of that of matter and normal energy. Some theorists have named this "quintessence," after the fifth element of the Greek philosophers. But, if quintessence is the answer, we still don't know what it is like, what it interacts with, or why it exists. So the mystery continues.

A last possibility is that Einstein's theory of gravity is not correct. That would not only affect the expansion of the Universe, but it would also affect the way that normal matter in galaxies and clusters of galaxies behaved. This fact would provide a way to decide if the solution to the dark energy problem is a new gravity theory or not: we could observe how galaxies come together in clusters. But if it does turn out that a new theory of gravity is needed, what kind of theory would it be? How could it correctly describe the motion of the bodies in the Solar System, as Einstein's theory is known to do, and still give us the different prediction for the Universe that we need? There are candidate theories, but none are compelling. So the mystery continues.

The thing that is needed to decide between dark energy possibilities - a property of space, a new dynamic fluid, or a new theory of gravity - is more data, better data.

What Is Dark Matter?

Abell 2744: Pandora's Cluster Revealed

One of the most complicated and dramatic collisions between galaxy clusters ever seen is captured in this new composite image of Abell 2744. The blue shows a map of the total mass concentration (mostly dark matter).

By fitting a theoretical model of the composition of the Universe to the combined set of cosmological observations, scientists have come up with the composition that we described above, ~70% dark energy, ~25% dark matter, ~5% normal matter. What is dark matter?

We are much more certain what dark matter is not than we are what it is. First, it is dark, meaning that it is not in the form of stars and planets that we see. Observations show that there is far too little visible matter in the Universe to make up the 25% required by the observations. Second, it is not in the form of dark clouds of normal matter, matter made up of particles called baryons. We know this because we would be able to detect baryonic clouds by their absorption of radiation passing through them. Third, dark matter is not antimatter, because we do not see the unique gamma rays that are produced when antimatter annihilates with matter. Finally, we can rule out large galaxy-sized black holes on the basis of how many gravitational lenses we see. High concentrations of matter bend light passing near them from objects further away, but we do not see enough lensing events to suggest that such objects to make up the required 25% dark matter contribution.

However, at this point, there are still a few dark matter possibilities that are viable. Baryonic matter could still make up the dark matter if it were all tied up in brown dwarfs or in small, dense chunks of heavy elements. These possibilities are known as massive compact halo objects, or "MACHOs". But the most common view is that dark matter is not baryonic at all, but that it is made up of other, more exotic particles like axions or WIMPS (Weakly Interacting Massive Particles).