批判性思維在科學與教育中的重要性

在人類追求真理的歷程中，哲學與科學都扮演着至關重要的角色。它們為我們提供了認識世界、解釋現象的工具與方法。然而，無論是哲學理論還是科學理論，都不是普遍適用的“萬能真理”。每一種理論都建立在特定的前提與條件之上，因此具有自身的適用範圍和局限性。若把任何理論視為“放之四海而皆準”的絕對真理，就違背了科學精神的本質，也阻礙了思想的進一步發展。

毛澤東的《矛盾論》和牛頓的第二定律之間的對比，恰好揭示了這一點。

在《矛盾論》中，毛澤東指出，事物發展的根本原因在於其內部的矛盾——內因，而外因只是促成變化的條件，必須通過內因才能起作用。例如，雞蛋在適宜的溫度下可以孵化成小雞，而石頭在相同條件下卻不會發生變化。這個比喻生動地說明了“內因決定事物能否發生轉化”的哲學思想。

然而，當這種原則被應用到物理學領域時，就失去了適用性。牛頓第二定律F = ma 指出：

力， 質量，加速度，三個因素，相互關聯，同等重要，例如，物體的加速度由外力和其質量共同決定，與內因（物質的性質）的不同沒有關係。在任何條件下，所有物體都遵循這個規律， 沒有內因和外因之分，也沒有主從關係。

這說明，《矛盾論》的哲學概念無法描述物理世界中的可測量關係。反過來，牛頓定律雖然在經典力學的宏觀範圍內幾乎普遍適用，但在相對論或量子力學條件下卻會失效。由此可見，沒有任何理論可以解釋一切現象。

哲學理論提供了思考的深度，但缺乏可經驗驗證性；科學理論能夠精確描述規律，卻受限於特定條件與範圍。理論的真正價值，不在於被“崇拜”，而在於理解其適用範圍，並以批判的態度加以運用。

因此，在學習與研究的過程中——尤其對於青年學生和科學工作者而言——批判性思維是不可或缺的。批判並不意味着否定，而是指以理性分析的方式去理解理論、比較觀點，並以證據加以檢驗。只有具備這樣的獨立思考能力，我們才能真正把握知識的精神實質，而不被任何權威、教條或“偉大理論”所束縛。

科學的發展，正是通過懷疑與修正不斷前進的。尊重理論而不盲目崇拜，是科學精神的核心，也是每一位求知者應有的態度。

特別值得注意的是，在中國，幾乎每個學生在中學階段都學習過《矛盾論》，並記住那句“石頭不能孵出小雞”的比喻。然而，自該理論發表至今已近一個世紀，卻沒有任何學生、科學家甚至哲學家對其提出質疑或進行批判性重新審視。這一現象暴露出中國教育、哲學研究與科學精神的深層問題——我們被教導去相信，而不是去批判性地思考，這也是為什麼在現代中國不可能出現原創性科學理論或者有影響力的哲學學說。

The Importance of Critical Thinking in Science and Education

In humanity’s pursuit of truth, both philosophy and science play vital roles. They offer us tools and methods to understand and explain the world. Yet, no theory—whether philosophical or scientific—is universal. Every theory is based on specific premises and conditions and thus has its own scope and limitations. To regard any theory as an absolute truth, valid “everywhere and forever,” violates the very essence of scientific spirit and hinders intellectual progress.

The contrast between Mao Zedong’s On Contradiction and Newton’s Second Law clearly reveals this point.

In On Contradiction, Mao asserted that the fundamental cause of development lies within—the internal contradictions of things—while external causes are merely conditions that act through the internal ones. For example, a chicken egg can hatch under suitable temperature, but a stone cannot. This metaphor vividly illustrates the idea that internal factors determine whether transformation can occur.

However, when this principle is applied to the field of physics, it loses its applicability. Newton’s Second Law, F=ma , shows that force, mass, and acceleration are interrelated and equally important. For example, an object’s acceleration is determined jointly by the external force and its mass, and it has nothing to do with internal factors (the characters of the material). Under any conditions, all objects obey this law; there is no distinction between internal and external causes, nor any hierarchy of importance.

This shows that the philosophical concept of On Contradiction fails in describing these objective relationships in the physical world. Conversely, Newton’s law—though nearly universal in classical mechanics—breaks down under the conditions of relativity or quantum mechanics. Thus, no theory can explain everything.

Philosophical theories offer depth of reflection but lack empirical verifiability; scientific theories provide precision but are bound by conditions and limits. The true value of a theory lies not in worship, but in understanding its scope and applying it critically.

Therefore, in learning and research—especially for young students and scientific thinkers—critical thinking is essential. To be critical does not mean to deny; it means to analyze rationally, to compare perspectives, and to test ideas against evidence. Only through such intellectual independence can we grasp the true essence of knowledge, rather than being confined by authority or dogma.

Science advances through doubt and correction. To respect theories without worshipping them is the core of scientific spirit and the proper attitude of any seeker of truth.

It is particularly noteworthy that in China, every student learns On Contradiction in middle school and remembers the metaphor “a stone cannot hatch a chicken.” Nearly a century after its publication, however, no students, no scientists, nor even philosophers have ever questioned or critically re-examined it. This phenomenon exposes a deep issue in Chinese education, scientific and philosophy culture — We are taught to believe rather than to think critically — and this is precisely why it is impossible for original scientific theories or influential philosophical ideas to emerge in modern China.