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2023-4-14
珍珠白陶器（Pearlware）是英國瓷器大家韋基伍德於1779年首先發明並使用的，是在1000到1100攝氏度中溫情況下呈色的釉下青花或釉下五彩陶器，以黃藍綠叄種顏色為主，在白胎瓷土上的氧化鉛瓷釉里添加了少量的化學氧化鈷藍，使得燒成陶器的白地透明釉面，呈現一抹澹澹的青藍色，這就更加接近中國早期外銷瓷器所謂的緊皮亮釉白中泛青的亮青釉，因此又叫中國釉、珍珠白釉、或珍珠瓷釉。其他廠家，包括利茲，都是從威基伍德那兒學來的。
從左到右的英國瓷片釉色種類：奶黃釉、珍珠瓷釉、純白釉
Pearlware is an earthenware made by Josiah Wedgwood in 1779. It was copied by other potters in England. Pearlware is only slightly different in color from creamware and for many years collectors have confused the terms. Only certain colors like blue, yellow, and green were used as underglaze paintings for pearlware because materials for other colors could not stand the heat necessary to fire the glaze.
從左到右的英國瓷片釉色種類：奶黃釉、珍珠瓷釉、純白釉
維多利亞博物館收藏的利茲珍珠白陶器。
Thus the repertoire of colors for underglaze painting (which was the contemporary potters' term) was restricted to tin, lead, and antimony for yellow; cobalt for blue; lead and copper for greens. Iron and manganese oxide mixed produced brown tones; manganese alone gave a purplish brown; black was produced by a mixture of iron oxide and cobalt and orange by any of the yellow oxides with the addition of iron oxide.
兩個英國早期珍珠白釉青花盤
最早期（1775-1781）的珍珠白陶器，以釉下青花為主，工筆細描，一絲不苟，以彷中國青花瓷器為主：
Blue was the dominant underglaze color for China glaze and the early pearlware from c. 1775 until around 1795. During this period, most of the blue painting was in a chinoiserie style. The development of underglaze printing in the mid-1780s appears to have played a role in limiting the painting of chinoiserie-style landscapes on tableware, but blue-painted China glaze teawares appear to have continued to be made until the period of the Napoleonic Wars when cobalt became scarce because supplies from Saxony and Norway were cut off by economic blockades. It appears that China glaze painted wares fell off in production as a result, suggesting an end date for them of around 1810.
到了1785-1815年，釉下彩繪出現，可是彩繪中沒有青花：
The volatility of prices and problems with the supply of cobalt due to the Napoleonic Wars appear to have a relationship to the introduction and increased production of underglaze-painted polychrome wares that began appearing in the mid-1790s (and to the decline in blue-painted wares). Polychrome painted wares from the period c. 1795 to c. 1815 often do not have any cobalt blue in the patterns, or when it is present, it is rarely the dominant color. These wares used oxides of copper green, antimony yellow, iron brown, and manganese brown because they were often under a blue-tinted “pearlware”.
從1815年開始，到1830年為止，因為拿破崙戰爭的影響，濃墨重抹的釉下青花開始出現：
Following the end of the Napoleonic Wars, cobalt blue painted wares again became common. This period’s blue floral painted patterns with large brush strokes were unlike the earlier, smaller floral painted patterns. While there was a dramatic increase in the use of cobalt blue, there is very little evidence of chinoiserie-style painted patterns following the War of 1812. Their place seems to have been taken by the printed patterns, such as the blue willow and others in a Chinese style. Polychrome painted wares with an increasing use of cobalt blue from c. 1815 to 1830. Later in this period, the amount of blue tinting declined as whiteware was being developed.
到了1830年以後，因為化學元素鉻的發現和硼砂的應用，包括紅黃綠和青花在內的釉下多彩，才成為珍珠白或者奶黃釉陶器的主流。
The introduction of borax into the glazes facilitated the use of chrome colors - greens, reds, and yellows - that became common after 1830 in the Staffordshire potteries. Chrome was identified as an element in 1798 by the French chemist Louis Nicolas Vauquelin. The metal was given the name chrome because of the variety of colors that could be derived from it. The earliest recorded use of chrome as a ceramic colorant was as a green ground on Sevres porcelain in 1802 (Préaud and Ostergard 1997:154), but it was not common on refined earthenwares until around 1830. One of the prominent new chrome colors was red (actually more of a pinkish red), made with chrome oxides in combination with alkaline glazes using borax. Because underglaze red and pink colors were not available until chrome oxides were introduced, they become excellent tpq indicators for the post-1830 period. Black became a common color for stems in floral painted wares from the 1830s on through the rest of the century.
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到1835年以後，一直到1870年，英國瓷器廠為了節省成本，降低價格，一種細小碎花的彩繪圖桉開始呈現，代替了筆畫繁複耗費顏料的早期珍珠白彩繪技術。
The earliest painted patterns, such as the China glaze landscapes, required a skilled painter and a large number of brush strokes, and thus were more expensive to produce. As the prices for painted wares fell, the potters were looking for ways to cut production costs. One of the ways to do this was the simplification of the painted patterns. By c. 1835, sprig patterns were being introduced. These were very simple small floral painted patterns that only required four-to-six short brush stokes for each element. Sprig-painted wares remained common up into the 1870s and possibly later.
1810-1820年間出口到北美新大陸的釉下彩陶又稱Gaudy Dutch。是英國藉助日本伊萬里瓷器風格而開發出來的十六種彩繪圖桉。
This style of polychrome hand-painted refined earthenware is also known as Gaudy Dutch. It can occur on a background of pearlware or creamware, however, the dates are currently thought to be the same for both.
美國佛羅里達大學博物館收藏的英國珍珠白釉瓷片
White to light cream-colored, thin, hard, refined earthenware paste. White to faint bluish-white clear lead glazed background, caused by the addition of cobalt to the glaze. There is a bluish cast where the glaze pools. Delicately painted floral wreath designs in olive green, brown, blue, and mustard yellow. If the motif occurs on creamware, the background is pale creamy yellow. We usually refer to any ceramics with the blue-tinted glaze as pearlware, an adaptation of Wedgwood’s pearl white, but some may refer to pearlware with a Chinese-style decoration as China glaze.
波士頓考古學會列出的各種顏色釉
The ceramic vessels consisted of both vessels used for the production and storage of food as well as serving food. Tablewares and teawares included creamware, pearlware, whiteware, redware, ironstone plates, bowls, cups, and saucers used for settings during meals and tea service. Ceramic vessels used for food production and storage included creamware, ironstone, pearlware, redware, stoneware, whiteware, and yellowware. The redware and stoneware were the most prevalent production/storage vessels due to their lack of expense.
顧名思義，奶黃釉微微發黃，而且黃中泛一點點的綠，也是威基伍德引入實用的，可是存在的時間應該更早一些，在1740年前後，是在以氧化鉛為主的釉水中加入了氧化銅才產生的，威基伍德改進了配方，在胎體和釉水中都添加了瓷石，使釉色更白更亮，稱之為女王釉。等到珍珠瓷釉發明並進入正規生產之後，奶黃釉就澹出了市場。
上面四個瓷器，左邊兩個是奶黃釉，右邊兩個是珍珠白釉，又稱中國釉。
Creamware, the earliest of the three, was formally introduced in England by Josiah Wedgwood in 1762. Cream-colored wares were being produced as early as the 1740s, but Wedgwood succeeded in creating a more refined ware. Wedgwood coined this ware as Queen’s Ware after completing his commission for Queen Charlotte in 1765 (Wedgwood Museum 2016). The creamy color seen in the glaze is achieved by the addition of copper to a lead oxide glaze. In places where the glaze pools, such as a footring, the glaze will look almost green. The popularity of creamware began to decline around 1800 with the introduction of pearlware and is virtually non-existent after 1820.
按理說奶黃釉和珍珠白釉，都是可憐的英國人為了在瓷器生產上彎道超車而多走了的彎路，不像那些聰明的德國人，利用工業間諜盜取了景德鎮的瓷器配方而一步到位，後來發現瓷釉中添加鈷料，一是需要增加生產成本，得不償失，二是發現鈷礦中，含有大量的砷雜質也就是毒藥砒霜，會引發採礦工人和制瓷工人的職業病。於是才改邪歸正，像德國的梅森學習，直接燒制純白瓷了。
珍珠白釉和純白釉瓷器的對比
英國瓷器中的釉色變化：奶黃釉1762-1800、珍珠白釉1775-1840、純白釉1820-至今。
Over time the use of cobalt decreased, most likely due to the expense of obtaining the mineral. Fun fact: the word cobalt is derived from the German word kobalt, which means goblin. Cobalt ore, when smelted, produces a powder that contains arsenic, which is highly toxic. By around 1808 a fully whitened version of creamware (known as White Ware) was introduced to meet changing market demand. As the use of cobalt decreased, whiteware begins to emerge, approximately around 1820. During the transition between pearlware and whiteware, it can sometimes be difficult to determine the difference between the two. Early whitewares can have a slightly blue hue to the glaze, particularly in areas where the glaze is thicker. Sometimes we define this as transitional whiteware.
失去了顏色釉的陶瓷，就回復到了梅森瓷器的高冷和一枝獨秀，也失去了日用瓷的地方特色、多元化和競爭力。於是乎，進入二十世紀之後，曾經不可一世，興盛了兩百五十多年的英格蘭瓷器製造業，也已經日薄西山，紛紛倒閉，關門大吉了。
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